Psychology · Anthropomorphism

On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism

Nicholas Epley, Adam Waytz and John T. Cacioppo
2007 · Psychological Review · Peer-reviewed journal article

A framework for asking when and why people attribute human characteristics, intentions or emotions to nonhuman agents.

Open primary source ↗Supporting source record ↗

What it contributes

Proposes three influences: accessible knowledge about humans, motivation to understand and control an agent, and motivation for social connection.

Read with care

This is a broad psychological theory, not a chatbot-specific trial. It does not make every social response to technology equivalent, or establish that attachment is necessarily harmful.

Why it belongs here

Helps connect interface choices with the needs and expectations a person brings to an interaction.

Source status

Published in Psychological Review, 114(4), pages 864–886.

Source reading depth

Authors' abstract and journal metadata checked via PubMed. This is a source note, not a full critical review.

4,021 citations · OpenAlex ↗
Snapshot: 1 October 2026. Citation counts indicate attention, not reliability; counts differ across databases.

Source check: 1 October 2026. Reading cautions are editorial interpretation, not quotations from the authors.